A Word on Gender Roles and Feminism

Gender specific roles are growing ever more confused. Androgyny is becoming ever more idealised by the media. I do not oppose the modern trend and am far from a male chauvinist. I was primarily raised by my single mother and I know the strengths women possess. My sister, whom I often meet’s at loggerheads, accuses me of supporting the patriarchal society. She said this when I asked her, without malice, not to play her music so loud at eight at night because I needed catch up sleep. At first took this to heart; I was quite offended by this allegation. However why wouldn’t anyone ask a hypothetical brother politely to turn down their music. On reflection I know she is simply blurting a newly learnt word from her politics and journalism course at university. Petty sibling arguments stand to belittle my argument before I have started however is was an argument measure of the success of feminism with a friend Helena Pliotis that actually got the ball rolling.


The Oxford Dictionary defines feminism as “the advocacy of women’s rights on the grounds of the equality of the sexes”. The emancipation of women in relatively recent history is, in my opinion, an embarrassingly late progression in human culture. The consensus is that women deserve the same rights as men. However are men still dominant in the administration of politics, economics and sciences?


Men and women’s psychological differences originate in hormonal balance in the developing fœtus and every child starts its development in a feminine form this is partly why men have nipples, I would imagine retaining them is favoured by sexual selection. The hormone œstrogen contributes mostly to feminine specific development. Girls are known to develop language faster than boys and have a greater portion of the brain allocated to social skills.


Direct evidence for women being far more inclined to talk among themselves than men for is a regular experience. Nowhere is the more blatant than the wait outside a primary school to collect a child. Mothers quickly form social circles, a regular group of friends to speak to and wait with. Whereas men often adapt to solitude, never have I before seen a group of more than three fathers interacting, even then such a sight is not common place. However groups of such proportion are common place among waiting mothers outside a primary school.


Socialising is clearly not as elementary or appealing to men as for women. Various peers who live within a conventional nuclear-family model insist their mother ‘wears the trousers’ and this apparently entails acting as spokesperson for the entire family. A women’s vocation in verbalising thoughts and ideas coupled with the absence of aggressive behaviour, associated with the male sex hormone testosterone, make women seem like a an extremely viable candidates for leadership in a peaceful democracy. I would speculate women’s temperament is juxtaposed against the egotism of war.


Man’s oppression of women may thought be due to intimidation. A friend has argued that it is pure narcissism of male kind that has perpetuated gender specific roles by physical force for so many generations. By conditioning have women been trained to be subservient to men? I would argue no however: the male sex hormone – testosterone - is vastly responsible for temperamental and physical development of the male fœtal development.


Men are typically physically stronger than women; however there are acceptations and my sister for one could demonstrate. The golf between male and female physical capability is a publicly accepted inequality and is endorsed by the Olympics. Man’s lack of further development of the social modules in brain is compensated by investing further space for problem solving and lateral thinking modules. Could this be why the emaciation of women is poorly represented in academics? I do know females that have higher academic achievements than I do. My friend believes man’s long exclusion of women from higher education is the reason and women lack the self-confidence and role models to become high academic achievers. I would defy anyone to say women simply lack academic ambition, Marie Currie physicist and Jane Goodall naturalist are house hold names for their contribution to the sciences. Contrary to this women have shown an innate lack of drive because they have never taken a left wing initiative for social reform within classical history. The rise of feminism in recent history is completely unlike any other social uprising. There is no documented evidence for any attempt in vain for women’s rights undertaken and not a single known martyr for the sake of the equality of women until fairly recently.


Observational psychologist Margaret Mead’s field observations in papa New Guinea of a tribe that exhibited gender role reversal further plausibility of learned physical intimidation in women and gender specific roles. Mead experiments also don’t contain enough information of the biology of her observed minority to say that that perceived patriarchy is purely cultural. The reverse roles of gender in this tribe may just as likely be an unusual caused by hormonal imbalance. The males could be feminised or females may have been subjected to more testosterone than normal during fœtal development. Therefore mead may well be observing a behavioural phenotype of developmental reversal. The tribe has never been seen since; this may suggest matriarchy is not favoured by natural selection. Narcissism cannot be the only factor for the modern patriarchy. Each newly born girl is not successfully brainwashed to comply with a completely arbitrary concept of gender roles without any questioning of the reasoning behind it. The fight for gender equality was fairly easy once enough women had rallied for the vote and is nothing close to the persecution of women of Iraq today or the blood-stained plight of the Afro-Americans.


I do not doubt that there is a proportion of male intimidation in domestic situations but my argument orientates around social, political and economic equality (where aggression is typically taboo). Whether or not the relationship between man and woman fully orientated around sexual jealousy and social-romantic dynamics it cannot be said. I speculate the high mortality risks in child birth, low superfluous-fecundity and viviparous wide hips for a biped in in prehistoric women contributed to gender specific roles.


The relationship between man and woman is an affair that dates back countless æons to the first sexually reproducing life forms. Social animals often have gender specific roles indiscriminately placed upon each gender; lions live in a female dominant social order. It would be ignorant to think that natural selection has no tapered the psychology of each living creature to obey his or her gender roles innately. Similarly male lead social orders can be observed in all higher order mammals including dolphins, apes, elephants, whales and wolves.


Evolution was planted into our minds, via the Baldwin effect, complex instincts manifested as archetypal social roles. This is consistent with men and women alike have typical preference for example to be nursed by a woman or lead by a man. Accepting an evolutionary reason of sexism opposed to a cultural prejudice will better facilitate reform, for women to hold animosity pointless. A potential against the evolutionary gender roles argument I have posed are sexual roles.

Casshern a Motion picture Directed by Shochiku Casshern

Casshern in  Japanese science fiction film directed in 2004. The review on the case, from News Of The World, likens the feature to the Matrix, however Casshern completely lacks the gritty realism conveyed in the Matrix trilogy. Casshern has some very blatant plot holes and has tongue and cheek approach to much of its special effects. However the over all cinematic effect keep you up to pace with both the action and the drama. The film is laced with the powerful monologues and philosophical conflicts that the Matrix shares however I fear the English dubbed loses a faire bit of its weight in translation. The set and costume design was executed with style. My incomplete (non-spoiler) synopsis of the film. A scientist, Dr. Azura, appeals for funding for stem cell research in order to extend human life. Their is a wide appeal for this type of  technology because the is so much illness in the ruling stagnating hypocrisy. The steam cells or 'Neo-cells' as their called in the film then conglomerate into power ranger type pseudo-nazi-ninjas. Mean while the research also resurrects the dead son of Dr Azura whom also becomes a power ranger capable of destroying a entire army of giant robot's with no specified origin. It's radical sceptical it wouldn't be shame to miss.

http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0405821/

Installing Fallout 3 on Hp Pavillion, Windows 7 64-bit

On the 29/06/2011 I got the 'Fallout 3 Game of the Year Edition' for PC. Running it on a 'Hp Pavilion dv6' with the applicable system requirements, as follows.

• Operating System: Windows 7 Home Premium 64-bit
• Processor: Intel(R) Core(TM) i3 CPU       M 350  @ 2.27GHz (4 CPUs), ~2.3GHz
• Memory: 4096MB RAM
• Card name: ATI Mobility Radeon HD 5470

The Solution

The nature of my the problem occurred after installation of Disk 1, when I started the game it crashed, after just moments of game play. I managed to get the game working and, special thanks to MissionAvoid and pocho951 from YouTube, the resolution goes as follows.

1. Make sure you are using appropriate resolution quality and try starting it windowed as opposed to full screen (if this resolves the problem this is Windows in error.). 
2.  Download d3d9.dll at http://www.mediafire.com/?am8daeaj1rmc7oe
3. Navigate to folder Fallout3. Drag and drop d3d9.dll into Fallout3 document.
4. Within the folder titled Fallout3 this will be a Fallout3.exe document open it
5. Locate the script that reads- bUseThreadedAI=0
6. Then change this into- bUseThreadedAI=1
7. Create a new line below the change you just made and paste in- iNumHWThreads=2 

I was also having trouble installing Disk 2, the installation wouldn't load I resolved this by installing whilst in Safe Mode.  Safe mode can be accessed by repeatedly tapping F8 before windows had loaded. You can do this when you turn your computer on or by restarting your system. However I am having trouble accessing the additional content from Disk 2.

The Nervous System

The brain contains near one hundred billion cells. Each neuron has one thousand synapses each. A neuron is around 10-100µm wide. The cell body of a neuron is surrounded by dendrites and has an elongated myelinated axon leading to the axon terminals. There are three types of nerve cell the multipolar neurone we have just described, the bipolar neuron where the dendrites are also on an extended vestige and the monopolar neuron both the cell body and axon and dendrite vestige are myelinated. Glial cells help to support, nourish and modulate neurons in the brain. Astrocytes are one type of glial cell. Astrocytes serve as a medium between the neurons and the capillary’s.

Resting potential is an uneven distribution of ions across the neural membrane. The difference in electrical potential causes electro-activity across the neuron. Information is conducted much faster along myelinated axons. Sodium-potassium pumps fire at intervals across the axon and serve to propel impulses to the axon terminals. Neural information travels from dendrite to the axon terminal. The surface of a neuron is rough because it is covered with boutons. Where an axon terminal meets and exchanges neurotransmission via synaptic vesicles to a dendrite is instrumental in information processing, this is known as a synapse.

Neural tissue helps organisms interact with their environment. Afferent sensory neurons carry information into the brain. Information may be electromagnetic e.g. visual by the optical nerve and the retina is part of the brain. The right hemisphere of the brain controls the left side of the body and visual field and vice versa.  Senses may be mechanical e.g. touch and hearing and chemical e.g. taste and smell. Afferent neurons act as thermo-receptors throughout the body. Nociception or pain is processed sensory cortex. Efferent motor neurons tell the body how to respond. Vestibular information, balance and motion are coordinated in the inner ear. Proprioceptive sensory information is the relative position of bodily parts.

At the age of one month the embryonic brain has specialises into three regions the forebrain, the midbrain and the hindbrain. In an adult human, the hindbrain develops into medulla, the pons and the cerebellum. The midbrain associates with the hindbrain to form the brainstem. The brain stem is responsible for automatic survival functions e.g. homeostasis. The medulla drives heart beat and breathing. The cerebellum orchestrates coordination and balance. The embryonic forebrain matures into the diencephalon and the cerebrum. The diencephalon consists of the thalamus, the hypothalamus and the epithalamiums. The thalamus relays messages and may be thought of the brains switch board for the cerebrum. The hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland (therefore serves to regulate the sleep-wake cycle), hunger, thirst, and pleasure.

The cerebrum constitutes the cerebral cortex, white matter and basal nuclei; the cerebellum is made up of many lobes. The frontal lobe functions for decision making and speech. The partial lobe processes sensory information. The temporal lobe processes audio information and the occipital lobe, positioned at the posterior of the cerebrum, process visual information. The right and left hemispheres of the cerebrum are specialised. The left specialises in symbolic thinking, detailed learning and lateral thinking. The right side deals with spatial perception, context and metaphor.

Characteristics of mammals

Mammals are endotherms they produce body heat by internal means and possess body hair or fur. They have mammary glands to secrete milk for the nourishment of their young. Mammals typically have live births, high metabolic rate, epiglottises, four chamber heart and hypertonic urine

Latent Heat of Fusion

The energy released or absorbed by chemical substance during a change of state, without a change in mean squared velocity. Latent heat if fusion is literally, the enthalpy of a substance when is melted (converted from solid to liquid) without a change in temperature.

Specific Heat Capacity

Specific heat capacity is the joule energy required to heat one gram of substance by one Kelvin. Specific heat capacity changes with the state of matter of a substance.

Hamilton’s Rule rB > C

Quantified altruism, states relatedness multiplied by the potential number of children is greater than the risk taken. Known as kin selection.

The Baldwin Effect

A learnt behaviour that improves fitness for example will become easier learnt by natural selection (assuming those that fail to lean die). Iterated the behaviour becomes instinct.

The Relationship Between Structure And Function In The Liver by Caspar Zialor

The liver is an organ found in all vertebrates. The liver functions as an interface between the digestive tract and the blood. In humans the liver is a large organ that rests below the diaphragm in the abdominal cavity. The liver’s right lobe dominates the right anterior hypochondriac region, and the left lobe takes a fair dividend of the anterior epigastric region.

An organ is a group of tissues that work together to perform a specific function. The liver is a vital organ performing a great variety of different functions. The liver hosts a multitude of biochemical reaction pathways required for metabolisms- including carbohydrate and fat metabolisms. The liver also contributes to the breakdown of erythrocytes and the detoxification of drugs and toxicants in the blood. The liver functions on the deactivation of hormones which are substances secreted by an endocrine gland into the circulatory system. In the liver, enzymes remove the nitrogenous section of unanabolized proteins, catabolising them in a structured reaction pathway yielding urea destined for the kidneys, this process is called deaminiation.

Embryonicly the liver is a gland derived from an outgrowth of the gut epithelium and performs both endocrine and exocrine functions. Structurally the liver is made up of countless lobules. Around the circumference of the lobules are arteries, veins and bile ducts - centripetal to their structure is their central vein. A complex of blood filled sinuids radiate from the central vein within the lobule. The fractal structure of the sinuids gives the liver a large surface area to maximize membrane transport and diffusion.

The liver undergoes three phases of depreciation of oxygen content in the blood as oxygen diffuses into the sinuid tissues; this is called the liver acinus. As blood channels from the hepatic artery into the central vein, the blood travels through three phases: preiportal- high oxygen content, intermediate and central venous drainage; the lowest oxygen content – plays a role in detoxification.

The size of the liver is controlled by metabolic requirements; mature differentiated hepatocytes may proliferate at any stage of their life. In rats transplanted or mutilated livers may grow to accommodate the specific organism very quickly potentially tripling in size within two weeks. Korkut Uygun has stripped the cells off the liver of a rat to its bear collagen structure and reconstituted cells over the old structure. The reformed liver was successfully transplanted into a genetically similar rat.

Hepatic macrophages float within the sinuids and are used for breaking down erythrocytes; this also occurs in the spleen and bone marrow. Heme, derived from heamaglobin, is broken down in the liver by enzymes. Heme oxygenase removes the iron from the heme to produce biliverdin, releasing an iron atom. Ferritin binds the iron atom in a cyclopentadienide anion complex on the catalase tetramer; these proteins are stored in the peroxisome. Preoxisomes are bountiful in the liver hepatocytes. Catalase tetramer has its role in the breakdown of methanol. The enzyme biliverdinase reduces biliverdin into bilirubin. Bilirubin is non-miscible however when conjugated with glucuronic acid - forming sterobilin - it is soluble enough to travel though the bile ducts into the intestines for defecation. Some bilirubin is also absorbed into the neighbouring kidney and synthesized into urobilinogen to be relieved in the urine.

A thin layer of squamous endothelial cells lines the sinuids, however hexagonal-cuboidal hepatocytes form the majority of dense matter in the liver. Between the endothelial cells and the hepatocityes is the space of disse formed from collagen. The hepatocytes apical domain forms a thin extracellular canal called the bile canaliculus.  The bile canaliculus leads into the bile ducts. Bile is the waste product of the hepatocytes metabolism; concentrated by the gall bladder. Bile facilitates the emulsification of lipids in the small intestine. The liver is associative with many other organs including the right kidney, oesophagus, gall bladder and adrenal gland. The falciform ligament separates the liver’s right and left lobes as can be seen in figure (1). The anterior superior right lateral region consists of three impressions: the colic, the duodenal and the right renal. Inferior to this is the right adrenal gland impression. The superior medial anterior of the liver is where the bile ducts, the portal vein and the hepatic artery affix illustrated in figure (1). The inferior medal region of the anterior liver appends the inferior vena cava; to the left is the caudate lobe. The liver is our largest and most metabolically active organ and thus produces the majority of our body heat. At the medial superior anterior is the quadrate lobe. At the inferior anterior of the left lobe is the gastric impression.

The liver receives nutrient rich blood originated from the small intestine from the portal vein leading though the left lobe; unmetabolized glucose carried up from the small intestine may be stockpiled as glycogen. The synthesis of glycogen from glucose monomers is a condensation reaction; this process is regulated by pancreatic hormonal signals received in the blood. Glycogen is a helical branched polymer stored in dense granules associated to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the hepatocytes. Glycogen is stored for when the body needs additional energy for catabolism. Glyocogen-debranching enzymes are encrusted in the plasma-cellular membrane of the hepatocytes. Glucose, also known as blood sugar, has a hydroxyl and an aldehyde functional group. Glycolysis is a stratified reaction pathway dictated by enzymes that produces ATP and occurs in the mitochondrion. In the liver, oxygenated blood is received through the right lobe’s hepatic artery to enable the preferable aerobic pathway Krebs cycle; each individual glucose molecule yields six carbon monoxide and thirty-four adenosine 5’-triphosphate molecules.

In hunter-gatherer communities, offal is valued over the animal’s meat. The liver is an extremely nutritious organ especially when eaten raw. The liver contains all the essential vitamins. As well as glycogen and iron, the liver stores fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E and K, copper and some miscible vitamins, including vitamin B12. However the liver must be eaten quickly and cleaned thoroughly because bile taints the flesh.

Figure 1 posterior and anterior veiws of their liver by Caspar Zialor

Abraham L. Kierszenbsum, M.D., Ph.D. Histology and Cell Biology An Introduction to Pathology 2^nd edition (Mosby, Inc., an affiliate if Elsevier 2002, 2007)

David Hames & Nigel Hooper Bios Instant Notes Biochemistry 3^rd edition (Taylor & Francis Group 1997, 2005)

Neil A. Campbell & Jane B. Reece Biology 8^th edition (Pearson International, Benjamin Cummings 2008)

Bruce Alberts, Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, Peter Walter Molecular Biology Of the Cell 4^th edition (Garland Science, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group 2002)

Anne Waugh & Allison Grant Ross and Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness 11^th edition (Churchill Livingstone and affiliate of Elsevier 2006, 2010)

A. William Johnson Invitation to Organic Chemistry (Jones and Bartlett Publishers ,Inc. 1999)

Brian and Deborah Charleworth Evolution A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press 2003)

John Wiseman The SAS Survival Handbook (Guild Publishing London 1988)

Pg. 17 (New Scientist 19^th of June 2010)

Brownian Motion

Robert brown first observed though a microscope the jerky movement of pollen particles in water. This jostling can also be observed in an airborne smoke particle, the average speed of air molecule is 1000mph. Although an atom cannot be seen the existence of atoms can be inferred empirically. The force acted onto the pollen or smoke particle by the atom is tiny however, movement occurs because of imbalances in the acting kinetic forces, knocking the particle in jerky movements. The seemingly uniform pattern of Brownian motion is a fractal. Temperature is the mean squared velocity therefore if the temperature is increased a greater activity of motion is observed. Einstein popularised Robert browns 19^th century idea and thwarted atomic theory sceptics of the early 20^th century.

Kinetic Theory & Pressure law

In 1859 James Klerk Maxwell speculated on the properties of air based on almost prophetic postulates. J. C. Maxwell visualised air particles as tiny solid spheres travelling distances that are much greater than their diameters. Maxwell presumed all particles in a gas volume are initially at random positions. Maxwell devised as though experiment in which the law of entropy may be breached if the particle in given volume could be spontaneously organised, dubbed by lord kelvin as Maxwell’s dæmon.

The average speed of an air molecule is 1000mph. Maxwell postulated molecules travel between collisions at a constant speed. Interactions between particles conserve energy but still some will deviate from average greatly, traveling much faster or slower than average velocity. Maxwell prophesised the properties of the ‘at the time’ undiscovered Nobel gases in his ideal gas model which overlooked the influence of intermolecular forces.

Maxwell’s insights into the properties of gases allowed him to create a new definition of temperature. Temperature is now understood as the mean squared velocity, because temperature is directly proportional to pressure (at constant volume and mass). Pressure is the force per unit area exerted on the inside of a container. Therefore Maxwell’s ideal gas laws describe the relationship between pressure per unit area and the frequency of collisions in a given volume. Pressure is the kinetic energy of gas particles colliding with the inside of a container.

Principles of Atomic Bonding

Covalent Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Atoms are constantly striving for eight electrons in their outer shell; this is called the octet rule. In order achieve an outer shell of eight they must be willing to share or receive different amounts of electrons; valence is an atoms capacity to from bonds. Interaction between unpaired electrons and vacancies in energy shells are the cause of all atomic bonding. Ionic and covalent bonds are opposing ends of a spectrum of electrostatic interaction between atoms or ions. In reality there is a gradient from one to another.

Figure 1; triple covalent bond in nitrogen

Electrons interact in pairs– electrons negotiate their repelling charges via spin pair repulsion. Negatively charged covalence electrons may also reel electro-positive nuclei together. All bonds between any non-metallic substances will be covalent. A covalent bond is when neither atom has the strength of attraction to fully remove an electron from the other and orbiting electron pairs can be shared between two atoms. Nitrogen is not naturally found as an individual atom but is diatomic and occurs as an N2 molecule. Nitrogen has three valence electrons and five electrons in its outermost P-orbital. Nitrogen requires three in its outer shell to complete its octet. By sharing three electrons each. They now have six in their P-orbital  - each nitrogen is allowed a temporary octet, including their inner 1s2 orbits. A dative covalent bond occurs when an electron pair is donated to an acceptor atom - dative covalent bonds are weaker.

Many simple covalent molecules have low boiling points e.g. nitrogen, ethanol, carbon dioxide and ammonia are all gasses at room temperature. N2 shares three pairs of electrons therefore N2 has three covalent bonds; each bond is named successively as s, p, and d. Three is the maximum amount of covalent bonds two atoms can share. It’s common for covalent substances to be water-insoluble; polymers and oils are covalent substances.

Figure 2; Ionic bonding in sodium chloride

Although covalent bonding is stronger – having a greater bond enthalpy than ionic bonding; ionic compounds are crystalline solids often with very high boiling points. An ionic bond forms when an electron is permanently removed and attached to another atom to form two oppositely charged ions. Oppositely charged ions are attracted to one another by electrostatic. Ionic bonds typically occur between metals and non-metals. Metals are very ready to pass on electrons; they are conductive and reduction agents. Non-metals are often oxidising agents and have a tight nuclear radius and therefore high electronegativity. When you react sodium and chlorine – sodium oxidizes to become a positively charged cation. Chlorine accepts an electron and is therefore reduced to from a negatively charged anion, forming NaCl. Sodium chloride is a brittle solid due to its ionic lattice. NaCl crystals, like many other ionic compounds (e.g. salts and acids) are soluble in water. Aqueous or molten ionic compounds are conductive.

Figure 3; Three-dimensional ionic lattice in sodium chloride

Intermolecular Forces

Circular visualisations of electron orbitals are a simplification. The actual path of an electron is defined by its orbital An orbital is in fact a cloud of the probable position of an electron, in effect the density of the cloud signifies where an electron is likely to be. An electron has the potential to deviate from its predicted position quite dramatically! Therefore in an atom electrons are not completely evenly distributed across the orbitals - where the majority of the electrons occupy a negative charge (d-) is induced; on the opposing side the proton creates a positive charge (d+); this is called a dipole. Dipoles can have a ‘domino effect’ by causing synchronisation of charge distribution among atoms in a close vicinity- this is called an instantaneous dipole is induced dipole. These weak intermolecular forces are also known as Van Der Waals forces.

Dipoles can also be induced in molecules. Chlorine is diatomic; a chloride molecule is non-polar. Each chlorine atom has the same electronegativity therefore balanced forces of attraction allow for electrons to orbit impartially. There is an even distribution of electrostatic across their covalence orbital.

Figure 4; Polarity of a hydrogen-chloride molecule

Atoms have a force of attraction, this attracts electrons in a covalent bond, this called electronegativity. Electronegativity increases across a period and up through the groups – it would be fair to make the observation that it is related to atomic radius and levels of shielding, although evidently not completely due to irregularity in observed periodicity. In covalent compounds the constituent atoms are likely to have an imbalance in their electronegativity. This causes polarity in these molecules because the electrons will be biased to occupy one partnering atom over another. Hydrogen chloride HCL is a polar molecule – it has permanent dipole in which hydrogen is partially positively charged (d+) and chlorine is partially negative (d-). Similarly with Van Der Waals forces, permanent dipoles have influence on neighbouring particles; these are dipole-dipole interactions.

Hydrogen Bonds; Intermolecular Forces Continued

Hydrogen bonds are the strongest type of intermolecular forces and are essential for life on earth – they are present in water. Water is the medium in which all cell metabolism, interaction and biochemical synthesis is carried out. Hydrogen bonds are the present in a great deal of organic molecules.

A hydrogen bond is a relationship between a donor and an acceptor. The low electronegativity of hydrogen when bonded to a highly electronegative atom with a small physical radius  - hydrogen’s proton is left almost completely unshielded, adopting a strong partially positive charge (d+). Hydrogen acts as a donor and is strongly attracted to unpaired electrons. Hydrides of nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine and that act as both an acceptor and a donor; intermolecular hydrogen bonds.

It’s important to understand that hydrogen bonds are at dipole-dipole interaction but are individualized because of their distinct properties. There are varying strengths of hydrogen bonds. Strong hydrogen bonds are more comparable to covalent or ionic bonds but are far weaker. Strong hydrogen dipole-dipole forces, strong hydrogen bonds occur in hydride anions in specialized conditions.

Moderate and weak hydrogen bonds are electrostatic attraction weaker than ionic. Moderate hydrogen bonds are the area of the most practical interest. The presence of moderate hydrogen bonds is reasonable for the unusual boiling point of water in comparison to other hydrides. Ice has a greater volume (therefore lower density) than water because hydrogen bonds organise oxidane particles into a lattice; hydrogen bonds are often represented by a dotted line. The strong polarisation of oxidane makes it a perfect solvent for many organic and inorganic reactions.

Figure 5; Two-dimensional visualisation of water molecules in a frozen lattice

Functional groups such as ketones and esters act as acceptors where as functional groups including alcohols and primary amines act as donors. Other organic species such as carboxylic acids and nucleoside bases can do both. This can be observed in the paring of guanine and cytosine; bases from DNA the instructions in all life forms. Weak hydrogen bonds can be observed in arenes and halogenoalkanes containing fluorine.

Figure 7; Hydrogen bonding in two genetic base pairs (left guanine) (right cytosine)

By Caspar Zialor

Chemistry 1 by Brian Ratcliff, Helen Eccles, David Johnson, John Nicholson and John Raffan. 2003	http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bond 08/11/2010
An Introduction To hydrogen Bonding by George A. Jeffrey 1997

Social Darwinism

Not publicly supported by Darwin himself. Social Darwinism has been used to support right wing political ideologies and has been used as a means to perpetuate existing stratified social structures. It main doctrine is that a factor such as intelligence or likely-hood to commit violent crime is predetermined at birth. Much of the evidence was found in concordances between monozygotic twins.

The discovery of was a revelation for social theorists. However application of selective breeding among domesticated animals is centuries old. Prior to the publications of Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species (published 1858), English political economist Robert Malthus (1766-1834) was first to suggest the potential benefits of selective breeding among human beings. Malthus is famous for his scientific contribution of Malthusian growth, which you may recognise from when we looked at ecology. Robert also devised the Malthusian catastrophe an idealised situation in which he discussed the benefits of famines and diseases in aid of wiping out the lower strata’s of society. Charles Darwin’s half cousin Francis Galton (1822-1911) coined the term eugenics and created new with it a new biosocial movement Galton feared the effects human civilisation would have on the natural selection of mankind and predicted a degeneration of the quality of the human gene pool. During World War II the grim reality of the application of human breeding programs and sterilisation, euthanasia and extermination of undesirables became realised under the rule of Adolf Hitler who became leader of the Nazi party in 1921 until his eventual suicide in 1945.

Evolution

Simple cells are thought to have evolved 3.5 billion years ago. The earth is approximately 4.6 billion years of age. The simple life forms were algae like micro-organisms and later, cyanobacteria which were responsible for the great increase in oxygen towards the end of the first era known as the Achaean. Actual algae occurred much later at the dawn of the second Proterozoic era around 2.5 billion years ago. 400 million years ago, during the Palaeozoic era, plants colonised the land. Evolution may be defined as the process by which species undergo transmutation over geological time. Evolution is a core theme of biology, all life on earth today comes from a common ancestor and incorporates genetics, systematics, palaeontology, developmental biology, behavioural psychology and ecology. The mechanisms of evolution by natural selection are variation within a population, superfluous fecundity, limits on population growth and heredity success. Individuals with the most favourable combination of characteristics are most likely to survive and reproduce therefore adaptive traits accumulate in a population. New species arise by divergence. This may due geographic, behavioural-social or physical limitation on interbreeding between populations. Comparatively the anatomy of two different species may share homologous features they have inherited from a common ancestor. The similarities between Abolocetus and the modern whale is an example of divergent evolution. Similarly two species may look very similar but only have a very distant common ancestor. By convergent evolution they have adapted to similar niches in the specific ecosystem. The fusiform shaped shared by whales and fish as result of the high density of water is an example of analogous or homoplastic features. 

DNA - Basic Structure

DNA serves to carry information from the parent cell to the daughter cell and is only two nanometres wide. Synthesis is when the DNA is replicated – DNA is a double helix, each turn of the helix is ten base pairs, made up of nucleotides which consist of nitrogenous bases. The two visible peaks between the curvatures of the helix are dubbed the major and minor grooves and have alternating lengths.

Supported by a sugar phosphate backbone; the 3’ carbon of the ribose link to the adjacent deoxynucleotide 5’ carbon by phosphodiester bridges during polymerisation. During this synthesis helicase unzips the DNA and polymerase utilises triphosphate Okazaki fragments whilst synthesising the leading 5’ carbon stand - the lagging 3’ carbon strand with the use of primers. The bases pair up: adenine (A) to thymine (T) and guanine (G) and cytosine (C). A to T has two hydrogen bonds and G to C has three hydrogen bonds.

RNA has uracil instead of thymine. During synthesis DNA can only be replicated in a 3’ (phosphate) to 5’ (hydroxyl) carbon direction and serves as the coding template, the double banded structure is called reverse complimentary. DNA’s structure is stabilised by a thousands of hydrogen bonds, Van der Waals’s forces also contribute. 5’ to 3’ serves for RNA synthesis coding.

Bases can exist in two tautometric forms, the standard enol from and rare keto form. Tautomers are a type of isomerism. Other types of isomerism include geometric isomerism, cis meaning on the same side and trans meaning across. Optical isomers are non-superimposable mirror image enantiomers. Tautometric isomerism leads to mispairing of bases. DNA’s structure is best retained at high humidity and low salt known as B-DNA. Denaturisation may occur at high temperatures, within alkali solution and in concentrated methanal (formaldehyde) or urea.

Various DNA structures may exist due to local-sequence dependant modulations of structure. Circular genomes occur in prokaryotic genomes and plasmids and well as viral, chloroplastic and mitochondrial DNA. However animal DNA is stored in chromosomes, DNA is wound around histone proteins to form nucleosomes. An entire chromosome forms during metaphase. The genetic code is made up of codons, which are triplets of bases. 

Frank Herbert's Dune

Copy write 1965, Frank Herbert's Dune captured my imagine nation from start until finish and truly had me in suspense at the end which is rare, for all my effort to avoid plot spoilers I must admit I accidentally read some. Dune captures so much epicness! In this book you observe a son of a murdered father and his mother first be indoctrinated into perhaps the most violent community imaginable. Then face the empire that ha done wrong to them in a tale that is political as much as it is amazing. The planet Akkaris where most of the happenings take place has a diverse history an even an fictional ecosystem. I enjoyed this book so much I also got the film as to hang on to its essence a little while longer. I know it wont be as good but it should be a fun night in.

Posthumanism

Originally uploaded by Caspar William

The British Broadcasting news web site openly speaks of the reality of the right wing results in of current class structure.

The divide in the human race in this article is said in principle to be due to a over reliance on technology. However the tendency for like-minded to have children together plays a large factor in modern human sexual selection. People of similar intelligence, attractiveness and social standing are far more likely to have children together. This will therefore have its effect on future generations. Especially in the upper classes consisting of the greatest minority’s of people of the world and often composed of ‘intellectuals’ will see the greatest divergence in their biology in the coming centuries.

Foundation by Isaac Asimov, 1951

foundation
Originally uploaded by Caspar William

Truly epic story capturing in exiting realism the speculated sociopolitical and economic crises in a distant future of an entirely populated galactic empire. The book is set over a vast space of time and the foundation covers 3 generations of characters. Asimov isn't the heavy weight in science fiction.

Their is a movie set to be directed by Michael Emmerich and i have fears that the holly wood cinema will not do the full content justice. I found this book impossible to put down, the copy i had was missing a few pages however I am buying the entire saga with a replacement on ebay.com and look forward to my next installment. the cover is by tim white and the art really capture my imagination! i refuse to buy any other publishing exempt for the the ones sporting this dated but awesome design.

George Orwell's - 1984

past, present or future?
Originally uploaded by view-askew

I was in a book shop in Muswell Hill today and over heard a the employees, (among poorly explained warnings of a coming world economic superstate) a female employee was asking a male working at the till weather he has read 1984. She hasn't and has only seen a small part of the film and actually thinks its good. the attitude of the people working in the shop I want to work in, towards the books they're selling made me very angry while trying to read the forward to Asimov's robot series. so i have decided to write a little about it.

Nineteen-eighty-four is the classic dystopia scifi novel it encapsulates a love storey between to non-conformist lovers. In a socialist war torn future the the life style of the individuals life is dictated by Nazi regime and ever scrutinised by ever present cameras. A personal favourite touch of detail in the book is when a fictional manifesto of a revolutionary. The book includes some interesting concepts of mind control such as limiting the language of a people as to limit their capacity for though and population control facilitated by children trained to spy on their parents, much like the Nazi youth. This was a great book and is a classic for I reason would recommend it to anyone! A female friend of mine read it and greatly appreciated my recommendation (a very rare thing fro her I assure).

Today in East Finchley I also picked up a copy of Our Post Human Future by Francis Fukuyama, which in the opening paragraph parallels 1984 (published 1949) to Brave New World (published 1932). Fukuyama's book is mainly focused on the impact of biotechnology. however the dystopian world of 1984 is world in which there is propaganda and surveillance are the only weapons of the state. Set in world of ceaseless war to wain the over productivity of the worlds labour forces. Orwells 1984 is socialist world with no privacy, I think it was brave of him to speculate so close into the future. The book is also a beautiful romance novel is defiantly a must to readers.

A Hive Of Rats

The heterocephalus glaber is the only mammal to live is eusocial social group. Eusocial species like wasps and ants by definition are communities of including asexual workers that aid in rearing children. The evolutionary rout to such behavior confounded the Darwins vision of evolution. however modern gene selection theory now incorporates kin selection as the key influencing factor.

The naked mole is attracting scientific attention with a lifespan in captivity of 28.3 years (oldest of any rodent) the naked mole rat can greatly subsidize its metabolism and therefore has a great resistance to oxidative damage. They also have almost lack the ability to feel pain, its though this is an adaptation to cope with the lactic acid build up in the body due to high carbon-dioxide levels in poorly ventilated living conditions.

Hetercephalus glaber is also thought to be cancer resistant, so a lot of work is currently being invested in mapping their genome. The common eusocial social structure incorporating a signal breeding female, limited breeding males, workers and guard roles are all expressed in mole rat behavior. Sexual behaviors are controlled by hormonal messaging from the queen. However brian structure play its role, oxytocin and vessopressin receptors are situated in the same part of the brain as monogamous voles.

Imagine a human working population that was completely controlled in number, was resistance to pain and any harsh working conditions including cold temperatures and even radiation!

My Message To Hawking

Stephen Hawking NASA 50th (200804210010HQ)
Originally uploaded by nasa hq photo

11:30 PM Yesterday I composed an email singing the Mr Hawking' praises and a big question i have to put to him; what your favorite science fiction book or movie? A reply is fractional chance however and i perhaps should have invested the time to proof read. the message goes as follows:

Dear Mr Hawking,

I am huge admirer of your scientific mind, your literary humor and your perseverance. I'm studying bioscience at westminster, if i can mature be be half of any of the great things you are i would have great pride. I'm a heavy metal fan and I would love to support you asa brand by wearing your merchandise but i am having great difficulty finding a source that dispatches from the UK, i cannot get your t-shirt in the uk and you live here. please, please, please rectify this! the reason i started this email was because i really wanted to know what your favorite science fiction book or movie. I wish the greatest wishes to your family and i have my fingers crossed for your plans to go to space. I'm routing for you!

yours unworthily

Caspar Zialor ^_^

Brave New World by Aldous Huxley

Brave New World by Aldous Huxley
Originally uploaded by Studies in Solitude

I have just finished reading brave new world. The book is a dystopian sci-fi novel that captures a prophetic speculation of the distant future. Written by Aldous Huxley in the 1930 the book covers themes like the limits of mass production and the teachings of Freud.

Huxleys preface states his stance on the choice between the two lunacys of social [dis]order of civilisation or savagery. The book is a tried an tested classic that brings home both the horrors of narcissism in human civilisations. Its amazing how good his scientific predictions mirrors todays reality.

Aldouse Huxley is the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley or other wise know 'Darwins Bulldog'. And this is reflected in the concise scientific dialogue. Aldouse also co-existed with his grand fathers close associate Darwins nephew Francis Galton. Galton who wrote 'Hereditary Genius', inspired the nazis and englishmen to support them like Bernard Shaw and is the founder of eugenics. Huxleys fear of such excessive intervention in human breeding and sexual propaganda are great. I found this book inspired, I may one day read it again!

Throw Away Your Television

Its 2011, the world is set to end next year according various modern and ancient religions. The conspired reality of americas plutocracy and integration into the common wealth is of no real concern. In the sickening state of the depression that is caused by the inflation the privately owned banks of the west caused, we are still not hindered by the mass 'relocation' of worlds wealth to very same people responsible. Here in london, government cuts are making the living conditions and opportunities to the commoner ever more limited and awkward; soon to be unbearable

The title of the 2008 number one album 'Age Of The Understatement' by Last Of The Shadow Puppets for me, permeates the current mindset among the majority of people. They say don't believe everything you read, but it is common practice to make up your mind social matters by conforming with television. The biggest joke in this age of the understatement is that peripheral motives of government that can be inferred from the BBC and channel four news and other such television channels.